Exploring Taxonomy, Metabolism, Habitat, Tolerances, Societal Roles, and Genome Sequencing of Fungi

Introduction

Microbes are tiny organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye. Some of these microorganisms are crucial to the survival of human beings, while others are toxic. Typical microbes include viruses, bacteria, and fungus. Fungi are very critical in the contemporary world as they are used in ecosystems to recycle nutrients and also the manufacturing of antibiotics such as penicillin -produced using a mold (Yakop, Farazimah, & Taha 733). However, several fungi are harmful to human health. For instance, parasitic yeasts can lead to a condition called candidiasis, which typically affects women mostly. Mushrooms are the spore-bearing fleshy fruiting bodies of fungi which have been known as a source of food for man in recent times. They are characterized by a cap, stem, and gills underside the cap. As a result, this paper, therefore, aims at discussing mushroom fungi in terms of their classification, metabolism, habitat, environment tolerances, societal roles, and genome sequence.

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Taxonomic Classification of Mushrooms

All mushrooms belong to Kingdom Fungi, and the type of mushroom defines the class family, phylum, class, and genus that it belongs to (Brandt 1936). For instance, meadow, oyster and button mushrooms have varied taxonomic classifications. Despite sharing some similarities since they belong to the same phylum, mushrooms are usually considered a very diverse species. In the Agaric family (Agaricaceae), umbrella-shaped sporophores are known to bear bladelike gills that are thin and bore under the cap of the mushroom (Brandt 1940). The sporophores originate from mycelium (threadlike strands network), and they contain a stalk and a cap (pileus). The lifetime of mushroom mycelia is dependent on the source of food as they can survive up to hundreds of years. The honey mushroom is a perfect example of an agaric.

Another group of quite a number of mushrooms belong to the Boletales order. On the underside of these mushrooms caps is a simple detachable layer which bears pores. However, several other fungi are considered as mushrooms as a result of their laymen. For example, the hedgehog mushrooms that are characterized by warts, spines and teeth on the branches end or rather the cap's under face (Brandt 1937). Another group of fungi considered to mushroom are the polypores which belong to the polypores order. In these types of mushrooms, tubes can be observed under the cap of the fungi, but they are not easily detachable like in the boletes. The polypores are characterized by their habitats with a majority of them growing in dead or living trees. The latter explains their longer lifetime as trees usually experience long lifetimes prior to human destruction. These types of fungi age can be determined as they renew growth annually leading to layers that are distinct and which can be used to determine their age (Brandt 1942). Examples of these fungi include beefsteak fungus, dryad's saddle, artist fungus, among others.

Based on edibility, these types of fungus are classified into two: edible mushrooms and toadstool, which refers to poisonous sporophores. The poisonous ones are characterized by allergic reactions and mild gastrointestinal disturbances which advocates for the accurate identification of the edible mushrooms in bid to avoid poisoning (Brandt 1943). However, the nutritional value of mushrooms is slightly lower compared to other foods, and they are usually preferred due to the delicacies they produce, texture and subtle flavour they provide to meals.

Mushrooms Metabolism

Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that are necessary to sustain the living state of an organism in addition to its cells (Demain 93). In Fungi, metabolism can be divided into two categories: secondary and primary metabolism. The latter is responsible for sustaining the growth and living state of the fungal cells. Simultaneously, the former ensures metabolites production that is not required to survive fungus but rather possesses specific niche functions. Secondary metabolism is responsible for controlling cellular traits, for example, secretion and uptake of macromolecules (Demain 103). In fungi, nutrient acquisition (through uptake and hydrolysis) is made effective through secretory activities. Fungal virulence is also enhanced through primary metabolism, where the fungal cell wall structure is strengthened to positively contribute to evasive properties and immune-modulatory post mammalian host invasion. An example of primary metabolites in fungi are enzymes that can metabolize organic compounds into simple sugars, phosphates, and soluble nitrates (Demain 98). Fungi then digest food (the soluble nutrients) outside their bodies, unlike animals, which digest food inside, following cells uptake of the nutrients to allow for the growth of the microbes.

Mushrooms Habitat

Mushrooms are found in most environments even though some species are limited to specific environments. The type of mushroom usually dictates their habitats. Most species live symbiotically with living woody plants roots and are called ectomycorrhizal while the other category is called saprotrophs which are consumers of dead matter (Yakop, Farazimah, & Taha 733). As such, the source of nutrients usually dictates the habitat in which a majority of mushrooms are found. Terrestrial environment is, therefore, the main form of habitat to a wide variety of mushrooms in recent times. Other surfaces crucial inhabiting the growth of mushrooms include horses' dung, deer dung, moose and elk (Yakop, Farazimah, & Taha 733). Sand dunes also promote the growth of mushrooms. As mentioned earlier, mushrooms usually grow on the back of trees, and the substrate should always be considered in experiments as they can help a researcher figure out what type of mushroom is at hand as they are substrate-specific.

Mushroom Environmental Tolerances

Fungi environmental tolerances are crucial to the survival of the microbes. For instance, the highly changing PH conditions in the host of the fungi can threaten the growth and survival of the fungus, depending on the host for development. However, most fungi are known to deploy mechanisms that aid them in adapting to varying PH conditions by modulating the host's PH (Fazli 6). The latter is enabled through the secretion of alkali or acids by the microbes to alter their environment and champion their survival. As such, most fungi have been considered tolerant to acidic or alkaline environments.

As a result of continuous pollution of land, fungi in these regions have had to adapt to heavy metals, which is usually poisonous to even human beings themselves. Fungi located in mining sites heavily covered in heavy metals such as Arsenic and Cadmium are tolerant of the poisonous effects that these metals impose on them and grow regardless (Fazli 10). As such, this property of fungi can be used as bioremediation clean up agents for heavy infested heavy metal environments. Mushrooms are also tolerant to pesticides which are usually used in their commercial production. During growth, they are sprayed by pesticides to eliminate the insects and pests that might harm their growth. Due to perpetual spraying of the mushrooms, they have become tolerant to pesticides which have enabled fervent destruction of the fungi by pests which also mutate in the process.

Mushrooms Environmental and Societal Roles

As previously mentioned, fungi can be either beneficial or harmful to their surroundings. Mushrooms are crucial in an ecosystem as they decompose dead organic matter and release nutrients to the surroundings to survive other organisms that they are in a symbiotic relationship (Kendrick 25). In society, food security can be achieved as a result of edible fungi. For example, bread and edible mushrooms can be used as sources of food by people in a country to avoid starvation.

In farming, fungi have been relevant in ensuring the productivity of the environment is achieved. The mycorrhizal relationship is responsible for improved soil fertility. In the absence of the previously mentioned symbiotic relationship, approximately 80-90 per cent of plants would cease to survive (Kendrick 13).

Fungal Genome Sequencing

Genome sequencing refers to the process of comprehending the DNA nucleotides order or bases in a specific genome (Fitzpatrick & Edgar 70). Fungal genome sequencing has been done in each species of kingdom fungi. The completion of budding and fission yeast genome sequence brought about the ideas which helped initiate the sequencing of a majority of fungi, for example in mushrooms. From the 1990s, a significant number of fungal genomes have been sequenced, representing the greatest of any eukaryotic kingdom. Genome sequencing involving fungi has been influential in advancing ecological studies, agriculture science, medical Science, and biotechnology (Fitzpatrick & Edgar 81). As a result, research should be intensified in this region to reap the full benefits associated with the genome sequencing of fungi.

Works Cited

Brandt, Mary E., and David W. Warnock. "Taxonomy and Classification of Fungi." Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 2015, pp. 1932–1943., doi:10.1128/9781555817381.ch113.

Demain, Arnold L. "Regulation of Secondary Metabolism." Biotechnology of Filamentous Fungi, 1992, pp. 89–112., doi:10.1016/b978-0-7506-9115-4.50011-5.

Fazli, Mehran Mohammadian. "Highly Cadmium Tolerant Fungi: Their Tolerance and Removal Potential." Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, vol. 13, no. 1, 2015, doi:10.1186/s40201-015-0176-0.

Fitzpatrick, David, and Edgar Mauricio Medina Tovar. "Fungal Genomics." Fungi, 2011, pp. 67–93., doi: 10.1002/9781119976950.ch3.

Kendrick, Bryce. "Fungi: Ecological Importance and Impact on Humans." ELS, 2011, doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0000369.pub2.

Yakop, Farazimah, and Hussein Taha. "Isolation of Fungi from Various Habitats and Their Possible Bioremediation." Current Science, vol. 116, no. 5, 2019, p. 733., doi:10.18520/cs/v116/i5/733-740.