Analysis of Categorical Data Results for Three Case Scenarios

For Case Scenario 1, a Chi-Square Test of Independence was carried out to determine whether a relationship between trust in the police and the presence of democracy exists in Africa. The results for the strength of the effect are shown in Table 1 below. A look at the Cramer's V and Phi reveal a value of .162. This means that there is a weak strength of association between trust in the police and the presence of democracy (see Table 1 below). Consequently, the association between the variables is not that meaningful.

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The answer to the research question is that there is a statistically significant association between trust in the police and presence of democracy; t X2(3) = 1242.165, p = .000 (see Table 2). One of the factors that could be influencing the results obtained include race or ethnicity of the citizens (Johnson, Wilson, Maguire, & Lowrey-Kinberg, 2017; Mullinix & Norris, 2018; Nix, Pickett, Wolfe, & Campbell, 2017; Thompson & Kahn, 2016).

Table 1

Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi .162 .000

Cramer's V .162 .000

N of Valid Cases 47429 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Table 2

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 1242.165a 3 .000

Likelihood Ratio 1173.593 3 .000

Linear-by-Linear Association 1125.520 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 47429 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1206.61.

For Case Scenario 2, a Chi-Square Test of Independence was carried out to determine whether a relationship between citizen trust in police and whether respondents reside in rural, urban or semi-urban settings. The results for the strength of the effect are shown in Table 3 below. A look at the Cramer's V and Phi reveal a value of .093 and .132 respectively. This means that there is a weak strength of association between trust in the police and the presence of democracy (see Table 3 below). Consequently, the association between the variables is weak and thus not meaningful.

The answer to the research question is that there is a statistically significant association between citizen trust in police and whether respondents reside in rural, urban or semi-urban settings.; t X2(6) = 877.477, p = .000. One of the factors that could be affecting the results of this analysis is socioeconomic status (Alda, Bennett, & Morabito, 2017; Murphy, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014; Wu, Lake, & Cao, 2015).

Table 3

Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi .132 .000

Cramer's V .093 .000

N of Valid Cases 50485 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Table 4

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 877.477a 6 .000

Likelihood Ratio 893.555 6 .000

Linear-by-Linear Association 794.593 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 50485 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 149.84.

For Case Scenario 3, a Chi-Square Test of Independence was conducted to determine whether a relationship between perceptions of current economic conditions and extent of democracy. The results for the strength of the effect are shown in Table 4 below. A look at the Cramer's V and Phi reveal values of .134 and .232 respectively. This means that there is a weak strength of association between perceptions of current economic conditions and the extent of democracy (see Table 5 below). Consequently, the association between the variables is weak and thus not meaningful.

The answer to the research question is that there is a statistically significant association between the variables of the study; t X2(12) = 2562.469, p = .000 (see Table 6 below). A factor that could be influencing these results include per capita income (Anyanwu & Erhijakpor, 2014; Cervellati, Jung, Sunde, & Vischer, 2014; Treisman, 2015).

Table 5

Symmetric Measures

Value Approx. Sig.

Nominal by Nominal Phi .232 .000

Cramer's V .134 .000

N of Valid Cases 47543 a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.

b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

Table 6

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 2562.469a 12 .000

Likelihood Ratio 2496.936 12 .000

Linear-by-Linear Association 2177.962 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 47543 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 245.90.

Social Change Implications

For instance, for case scenario 1, findings of a statistically significant association between trust in the police and the presence of democracy imply that citizen's trust in police can be enhanced through improved democratization. Another implication is that in autocratic or countries characterized by dictatorship, citizens are less likely to trust the police. For Case Scenario 2, the presence of a weak, but statistically significant association between citizen trust in police and whether respondents reside in rural, urban or semi-urban settings implies that people from all the residential settings trust the police. Therefore, the social implication of these findings is that the government should find effective strategies of making people have improved trust in the police. Lastly, the presence of a weak association between perceptions of current economic conditions and the extent of democracy means that the presence or absence of democracy is not seen by as an essential factor in the improvement of economic conditions.

References

Alda, E., Bennett, R. R., & Morabito, M. S. (2017). Confidence in the police and the fear of crime in the developing world. Policing: An International Journal, 40(2), 366-379. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2016-0045

Anyanwu, J. C., & Erhijakpor, A. E. O. (2014). Does oil wealth affect democracy in Africa? African Development Review, 26(1), 15-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12061

Cervellati, M., Jung, F., Sunde, U., & Vischer, T. (2014). Income and democracy: comment. American Economic Review, 104(2), 707-719. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.2.707

Johnson, D., Wilson, D. B., Maguire, E. R., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Race and perceptions of police: experimental results on the impact of procedural (In)justice. Justice Quarterly, 34(7), 1184-1212. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1343862

Mullinix, K. J., & Norris, R. J. (2018). Pulled-over rates, causal attributions, and trust in police. Political Research Quarterly, 1065912918793946. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918793946

Murphy, K., Mazerolle, L., & Bennett, S. (2014). Promoting trust in police: findings from a randomized experimental field trial of procedural justice policing. Policing and Society, 24(4), 405-424. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2013.862246

Nix, J., Pickett, J. T., Wolfe, S. E., & Campbell, B. A. (2017). Demeanor, race, and police perceptions of procedural justice: evidence from two randomized experiments. Justice Quarterly, 34(7), 1154-1183. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808

Thompson, M., & Kahn, K. B. (2016). Mental health, race, and police contact: intersections of risk and trust in the police. Policing: An International Journal, 39(4), 807-819. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2016-0015

Treisman, D. (2015). Income, democracy, and leader turnover. American Journal of Political Science, 59(4), 927-942. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12135

Wu, Y., Lake, R., & Cao, L. (2015). Race, social bonds, and juvenile attitudes toward the police. Justice Quarterly, 32(3), 445-470. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.778325