Research Paper on Volcanology

Abstract

The project consists of an in-depth of the active volcanic caldera and Krakatoa's general features, starting from geology to mitigation and infrastructure. The project aims to explore more concerning Krakatoa. Research concerning the location, future eruptions, and hazards of the past was conducted to obtain the results concerning the location's social and volcanic history. Through this, it was found how there are many factors related to Krakatoa. By showing how Krakatoa is a geological occurrence, the study demonstrated the significance of analyzing past and active calderas to precisely comprehend the place's volcanology and geology. It also showed how deforestation affected their land and farmers.

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Introduction

The Krakatoa is a small island located in the Sunda Straits between Java and Sumatra islands, where Java is among the top famous volcanoes over the universe. Abdurrachman et al. explained that in 1883, the Java volcano developed a huge geological disaster (111). The Krakatoa developed in 416 A.D.; however, it is still present in Indonesia. Krakatoa's shattering led to many people dying, with most cases being from enormous tsunami brought by the explosions. There were many disruptions that the Krakatoa explosion caused; the research aims at identifying the effects of explosion and deforestation impacts to land and farmers.

In 1883, a similar tsunami occurred and led to 120 deep tsunamis killing over 36,000 individuals, destroyed two docks in Australia and India, and more than 140 coastal homes. The sound heard from the tsunami was loud that it was heard in Rodrigues Island across the Indian Ocean, located 4653kilometers away from Krakatau. The main indication of the eruption was the red sunset, which existed for more than three years after the explosion.

Additionally, the eruption led to a formation of a 7km wide caldera. The remains of the ancestral volcano are kept in Lang and Verlaten Islands. Furthermore, Perbuwatan, Dana, and Rakata volcanoes were designed to form the pre-1883 Island (Mutaqin et al. 123-127). In 1883, the caldera collapsed after the eruption and destroyed Perbuwatan and Danan volcanoes, and there was only a Rakata volcano left. It was the second-largest volcano ever witnessed in Indonesia in the past and led to over 37000 deaths; many were an outcome of the enormous tsunamis, which interrupted the close shorelines of Java and Sumatra (Obregón et al. 185-191). Pyroclastic currents trailed almost 40km over the Sunda Strait, arriving at the Sumatra coast.

After the inactiveness for not more than a century, the Anak Krakatau was developed in the prevailing caldera between Perbuwatan and Danan's former cones. Hence, Anak Krakatau has been considered a place of continuous eruption since 1927 (Obregón et al. 185-191).

Methodology

Comprehensive monitoring was the method used for this research. There were monitoring sites developed surrounding the crater. Also, these sites were installed using GPS sensors and seismometers. One was placed in the old caldera rim while the other one at the crater; this assists in joining a gas monitoring the systems through a radio link. The data collected were received through the data acquisition center located in Pasauran. Because of the need to identify the precise epicenter of seismic operations around and on Krakatau, there were three networks of seismometers to help in the research. These networks aimed at generating waves to study the occurrence of earthquakes.

Additionally, location X and location Y waves were used to measure the speed at which waves travel and the exact distances depending on various reception times. The data collected was used to interpret the chances of Indonesia experiencing an eruption soon. It also helped in getting a clear comprehension of the volcanoes, eruptions, and their causes.

Results

From the results, it is apparent that the modeling to establish the future effects of volcanic hazards. For instance, the collapse of Krakatau by an eruption was a form of modeling. Grilli et al. explained that currently, Anak Krakatau is situated on the "northeast wall of the 1883 Krakatau eruption caldera" (1-13). Hence, due to its location, it will be unstable in case an eruption occurs. When the explosion occurs again, it will directly affect several islands consisting of Rakata, Panjana, and Sertung.

The tsunami eruption will disrupt tourist, tourist attractions and the coastal infrastructure. Residing in Indonesia, many individuals in the communities are often encircled by volcanoes. Because of this, people are not going to identify the warning signs or be cautious of eruptions. From the research, it can be concluded that this might have been the main reason for death, which occurred in 1883. Given Indonesia's low development and community planning, many people reside in locations where they are at high risk for volcanic hazards. It implies that a future eruption might be experienced in Anak Krakatau; however, the current technological advances offer the possibility of raising the capability of warning people, especially the likely affected societies, immediately and before an eruption.

Discussion

With the significant natural disasters in Indonesia, the nation has taken huge steps towards developing disaster mitigation systems and volcano monitoring. There was management established the Indonesian disaster board with the role of ensuring disaster planning and safety policy. Center of Hazard Mitigation and Volcanology provides alerts warning and helps plan how to respond to emergency occurrences.

Many efforts have been made to motivate local governments to spend more funds on disaster management programs. In Indonesia, some funds are directed to different initiatives consisting of risk mapping and doing a disaster risk analysis, supporting contingency planning operations, organizing forums for risk disaster management, and implementing seminars for staff and bureau.

Consequently, education is a significant factor in the management of risk reduction strategies. It has been mandatory to pass knowledge to societies to increase consciousness on the theory behind volcanic monitoring. Also, radio and T.V. have been an extra efficient manner of reaching individuals concerning a potential disaster. The Center for Hazard Mitigation and Volcanology broadcast warnings to the citizens and created numerous internet users and T.V. users in entire Indonesia.

The educational element has been significant in replacing a warning system subjugated by ritual and tradition. Furthermore, many local communities in Indonesia have relied on the agricultural economy hence, having strong connections to livestock and land. Therefore, community members frequently wait longer before they evacuate.

Conclusion

Indonesia's citizens are getting more educated concerning the risk caused by volcanic eruptions starting to understand the science of volcanic monitoring. Different agencies in the nation have ensured developed towards ensuring the safety of all people. Center of Hazard Mitigation and Volcanology provides alerts warning and helps plan how to respond to emergency occurrences. From the research, a future eruption might be experienced; however, the current technological advances offer the possibility of raising the capability of warning people, especially the likely affected societies, immediately and before an eruption. Appropriate budgeting helps in ensuring that resources are fairly allocated to those societies in need.

Disaster management has advanced by using T.V. and radios to mobilize people on the need for safety. Using these technologies to communicate with people has increased awareness, and people understand the science behind volcanology. Many of the farmers located in Indonesia are still connected to their local customs and land. Establishing changes in these areas will balance cultures and traditions with an extra systematic and standardized risk management program. Education is a significant factor in the management of risk reduction strategies. The main indication of the eruption was the red sunset. It existed for more than three years after the explosion. Due to the Krakatoa eruption, there were many deforestation issues witnessed in Indonesia and it affected the famers of the region.

Works Cited

Abdurrachman, Mirzam, et al. "Geochemistry and Structure of Krakatoa Volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia." Geosciences, vol. 8, no. 4, 2018, p. 111, https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3263/8/4/111

Grilli, Stephan T., et al. "Modelling Of the Tsunami From The December 22, 2018 Lateral Collapse of Anak Krakatau Volcano in The Sunda Straits, Indonesia." Scientific Reports, vol. 9, no. 1, 2019, pp. 1-13, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-48327-6

Mutaqin, B. W., et al. "Volcanic Eruption-Induced Tsunami in Indonesia: A Review." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 256, no.1, 2019, pp.123-127, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/256/1/012023/meta

Obregón, María Angeles, et al. "Sunshine Duration Data in San Fernando (South Of Spain) During 1880s: The Impact of Krakatoa Volcanic Eruption." Geoscience Data Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, 2020, pp. 185-191, https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/gdj3.101