Essay Example: Physiology for Psychologists

What is the mind-body problem, why did the split develop in the West, and how do modern psych physiologists consider it?

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The mind-body problem is the debate about the connection between consciousness and thoughts in mind and the brain. The relationship is considered a problem when the body and the human mind are perceived as distinct on the premise that they are different. This split developed in the West as dualism and was promoted by the perspectives and mechanistic approaches towards health care (Gendle, 2016). According to modern psycho-physiologists, they consider the mind-body problem as a representation of the metaphysical stance that mind and body are different based on their nature and functionality.

What settings are psychophysiological (not psychobiology) techniques used in, and what is psychophysiology used for in each context?

Often, psychophysiological techniques are used in the settings of health care, cognition development, as well as human body development. In each of the settings, psychophysiology is used in measuring brain function, assessment of the activity of the nervous system, and also investigating the brain structure (Michalos, 2014). In these instances, psychophysiology evaluates changes in the nervous systems reflecting on psychological or emotional incidents.

What are the key points you need to know to avoid fatal flaws in a study?

In a study, some of the vital elements that should be considered to avoid flawed research include the study design, sample size, and a proper research methodology. These elements are critical since they ensure valid and scientifically correct results. Also, other key points that one should know include the scope of the study and peer reviews to support the conclusions of the study.

What is the appropriate sequence of experimental designs used to demonstrate the effectiveness of a new clinical technique? Explain why each is performed in the order you recommend. (Note: This is not a list of requirements for a new treatment to be accepted.)Why bother with placebo-controlled studies in behavioral medicine since "we can see our patients getting better"?

The appropriate sequence of experimental designs in the clinical intervention should perform from pre-experimental, quasi-experiments, and financially valid experiments, which include post-test, pretest, and controlled trials. This is to ensure that the significant treatment method is scientifically developed. Placebo-controlled studies are essential despite the results since they help identify false positives in treatments and ensure that effects are because of the procedure and not any other factor (Temple &Ellenberg, 2000).

Why not just trust the "weight of clinical evidence" since that means that the "experts and everybody else can tell that a treatment is working"?

In the development of treatment, clinical evidence alone cannot be trusted since numerous factors may influence the different effects of advanced nursing. In as much as the medical practitioners can tell that the intervention is functional; it could equally affect the patient in other ways. As such, more details such as placebo-controlled studies besides clinical evidence alone are fundamental (Temple &Ellenberg, 2000).

How do genes and the environment interact to produce observed behavior? [Give at least two examples of such interactions (among human and/or non-human animals) and explain the typical experimental design used to differentiate the inherited portion of behavior from portions influenced by the environment.]

Genes and the environment interact to produce observed behavior in that genes action is dependent on the environment they act on while the influence of setting depends on the genes on which they work. For example, hormones, which represent the internal environment, affect the expression of genes and formation. Also, factors such as climate change and temperatures significantly affect genes developing a particular behavior. Some of the designs used to different behavior influenced by genes or environment include the Molecular Genomic research (Baumgartel et al., 2011).

Describe what a sex-linked trait is and how it is inherited. (Give one example and explain how it is passed from generation to generation.)

A sex-linked trait is a characteristic in which the gene is found on a sex chromosome. A sex-linked trait is inherited through a recessive gene in the sex chromosomes as they affected by the genes on the X chromosome (Fine et al., 2017). Primarily, the X chromosome is big and offers more genetic traits than the Y chromosome. For example, hemophilia trait can be passed from one generation to another whereby, depending on whether the father or mother is a carrier of the hemophilia trait, the offspring is likely to inherit an X chromosome with hemophilia gene.

Describe how human gender is determined genetically and hormonally, and the relationship between the two.

Since chromosomes are denoted as X and Y, they determined gender in that the female has a pair of X chromosomes while a make has X and Y chromosome. During fertilization, when the Y chromosome is present, the male gender is produced, whereas a female is developed in the of X only chromosomes. Since the information in the Y chromosome is not enough to develop the being, hormones control further genes on the X chromosome to develop since the Y gene functions as a master gene. The connection between the two is based on the fact that hormones and genes have to function together to develop normal growth and gender (Berenbaum&Beltz, 2018).

Explain natural selection and give two examples of how it works. (Include the genetics of altruism in your answer.)

Natural selection involves a process through which only the organism best adapted to their living environment survive and transfer their genetic features in increasing population to future generations while the less changed are eliminated (Williams, 2018). Often, altruism describes how identical genes may show similar behavior patterns. An example of natural selection is the existence where Peacock females select makes according to their tails in that males with the largest and brightest tails get to mate. Currently, it makes with small and less bright tails are rare. Also, in an eco-system, a species of rats in spaces trees, small rats cannot move from branch to branch while large rats break the branches fall. With time, rats that are neither small nor large develop to live in the branches.

Can you breed for behavioral traits among non-human animals? (Support your answer with at least two specific examples.)

Among non-human animals, breeding for behavioral traits is possible since the environment and genes relate to shaping animal behavior. On numerous occasions, the animals tend to adapt to new environments, and cross-breeding is possible to develop a specific species. This is possible through selective breeding (Van Eenennaam, 2017). For example, selective breeding has been done on cows to produce a species that provide a high volume of milk. Also, selective breeding is evident in chickens as they are bred to produce larger eggs or broiler chicken breeding.

Discuss some strengths of separated twin studies concerning the genetic similarity studies of fraternal twins and close relatives.

The studies allow the separating of the common genetic traits and environmental aspects for the trait under investigation. With a view of the fraternal twins and close relatives, the genetic similarity studies function as an epidemiological framework to establish the proportion of variance based on specific aspects such as the involved environment (Sahu&Prasuna, 2016).

Describe the genetic component of addiction. (Include at least two examples from humans and one from non-human animals.)

With the different instances of addiction, genetic variables contribute to the decision or initiative to use an addictive agent that transforms into an addiction. Through the influence of genes, social, and familial factors determine what a person applies (Bevilacqua & Goldman, 2009). For example, an individual may develop an addiction to alcohol, referring to their developmental background. Furthermore, there is heritability for hallucinogens in early adolescence in individuals. As an example of non-human animals' genetic component of addiction, dogs can develop addictions from behaviors in their genetic structure.

What is the effect on signal specificity of placing EMG sensors across a muscle rather than along it? Explain.

In the placement of EMG sensors, there is a significant effect on signal specificity when it is placed across a muscle rather than along the muscle. In different cases, the location of the EMG sensor location affects the capacity to detect a difference in muscle contractions (Mercer et al., 2006). When placed across a muscle, it means that the correct contractions may not be detected as expected. However, putting it along the muscle offers a more excellent opportunity for contraction detection.

Why do we feel the pain coming from the leg when a nerve starting at the leg is pinched in the butt on the way to the brain? Include both referred/neurogenic pain and the homunculus in your answer. (Hint: Think about the homunculus not knowing where a signal begins.)

This could be defined as neuropathic pain since it is a result of damage to the peripheral nervous tissues that are high in the butt. The alteration of the nervous tissue means that pain develops as a neuropathic cycle. Also, the homunculus transmits the pain since it is based in the neurological pathway improving a sensory function that there is damage; however, there is a distorted representation of the neural source since it cannot distinguish where the alteration begins (Brookshire & McNeil, 2014).

What are silent nociceptors, how are they activated, and what effect do they have on the intensity of pain when they are enabled?

Silent nociceptors are receptors that remain unresponsive to noxious stimulation. The receptors become responsive or are activated through inflammation and tissue damage. When enabled, they affect the intensity of pain by relaying information on the location of the painful stimulus and intensity to the central nervous system. They may tend to cause intensified pain (Prato et al., 2017).

Explain the pain gate. Include central and peripheral factors influencing pain perception. What is the difference in structure, method of conduction, and conduction speed between myelinated and non-myelinated fibers (individual nerve cells)? (Note: Do not discuss brain structures. This question is about individual cells.)

The pain gate derives that non-painful stimuli hinder the nerves' entry to painful input in that it prevents pain sensation from reaching the CNS. In its function of controlling pain, its structure ensures conduction of pain where the periphery of the body through the nerve "gates" send a response to the spinal cord and later to the brain. Often, the myelinated function faster than the non-myelinated fibers (Pereira & Lerner, 2017).

Are hormones always produced by glands? Explain.

Within the endocrine system, it is structured by glands that secrete hormones and other chemicals produced with the body system meant to regulate the activities of the organs and cells. Through the hormones, the body's metabolism, growth, sexual development, and function is regulated (Morley, 2016). As such, the glands can be said to produce hormones.